“Surface charging may occur on satellite components, drag may increase on low-Earth-orbit satellites, and corrections may be needed for orientation problems,” the NOAA explains of G3 storms, adding “Intermittent satellite navigation and low-frequency radio navigation problems may occur, HF radio may be intermittent, and aurora has been seen as low as Illinois and Oregon (typically 50° geomagnetic lat.).”

Sun activity increases and decreases in an 11-year cycle known as the Schwabe cycle. From 1826 to 1843, German amateur astronomer Heinrich Schwabe observed the Sun, discovering that it rotates on its axis once every 27 days. He noticed the Sun goes from quiet periods, where no sunspots can be seen, to the maximum phase where 20 or more groups of sunspots can be seen.

During the solar cycle, storms can reach up to level G5, classified as “extreme”, around four times on average. While G3-strength storms are more common, with around 200 per solar cycle, they can still produce powerful aurora around the equinoxes due to something known as the “Russell-McPherron Effect”

The ancient Japanese art of paper-folding, or origami, is already inspiring the design of the next generation of space vehicles, but now there’s a new family of origami shapes that could make them even more compact and reliable.

Larry Howell at Brigham Young University and his colleagues have developed a new class of origami structures called bloom patterns that fold up flat and unfold like flower petals. These clever folding designs could also be used for other structures in space, such as telescopes and solar arrays.

Origami-based designs are perfect for spacecraft because they can be made to fold up for launch and then unfold or deploy to their full size in space or when they arrive at their destination. This ability to pack tightly not only makes missions cheaper to launch but also allows smaller payloads to easily hitch a ride on a rocket carrying another satellite.